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 Postwar World The last wartime Big Three conference, held at Potsdam on July 17-Aug. 2, 1945, determined how peace treaties would be drawn up. Instead of an immediate conference like that following World War I, there were to be preliminary meetings of a Council of Foreign Ministers, representing Great Britain, France, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. Debate could proceed in relative leisure; hasty and ill-considered compromises could be avoided; and when a peace conference finally assembled, it could devote itself to really important issues. Such, at any rate, were the hopes of the Potsdam conferees. The initial foreign ministers' meetings were, however, disappointing. That in London (Sept. 11-Oct. 2, 1945) dissolved into a wrangle over procedure. Those in Moscow (Dec. 16-26, 1945) and Paris (April 25-May 16, 1946) broke up because of substantive disagreements, particularly concerning the amounts and kinds of reparations to be paid the USSR by Italy, the disposition of the region around Trieste, and the question of whether one of the former Italian colonies in Africa should be assigned to the Soviet Union as a United Nations trusteeship. SATELLITE TREATIES When the Council reconvened in Paris (June 15-July 12, 1946), however, the members were able to reach substantial accord on treaties not only for Italy but also for Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and Finland. Although differences of opinion remained, they agreed to submit these treaties to a general peace conference. Delegates from the 5 nations and the 16 others that had been allied with them assembled in Paris on July 29-Oct. 15, 1946. The Council of Foreign Ministers, meeting in New York on Nov. 4-Dec. 12, 1946, compromised remaining points of disagreement. Final texts of the five treaties were signed in Paris on Feb. 10, 1947. As a result of their ratification by the requisite number of states, all came into force on Sept. 15, 1947. Italian Peace Treaty The preamble to the Italian treaty contained a war guilt clause somewhat like that which had been included in post-World War I peace treaties. It asserted that Italy had undertaken "a war of aggression and thereby provoked a state of war with all the Allied and Associated Powers and with other United Nations, and that it bore a "share of responsibility for the war. But it also asserted that the principal Allies expected, by the treaty, to settle questions still outstanding, and that they would support Italy's application to become a member of the United Nations. The treaty's territorial clauses provided for minor rectifications of the Franco-Italian frontier, with France to receive the Little St. Bernard Pass, the Mont Cenis (Moncenisio) plateau, and small portions of the Mont Thabor (Monte Tabor) and Chaberton regions, and the upper valleys of the Tinee, Vesubie, and Roya (Roia) rivers. Yugoslavia was to get a small border area south of the boundary between the Italian provinces of Udine (Friuli) and Gorizia, the Province of Zara (Zadar), and the adjacent Dalmatian islands. Greece was to obtain the islands of the Dodecanese, while the Trieste area was to become a free territory guaranteed by the United Nations. The political clauses of the treaty stipulated that Italy should "take all measures necessary to secure to all persons under Italian jurisdiction, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion, the enjoyment of human rights and of the fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, of press and publication, of religious worship, of political opinion and of public meeting. No penalties were to be visited on Italian nationals because of wartime partisanship for the Allies. The Italian government undertook to prevent the resurgence of Fascist organizations or any others, "whether political, military or semi-military, whose purpose it is to deprive the people of their democratic rights. Italy renounced sovereignty over her former colonies, Libya, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland, agreeing that their final disposal should be determined by the USSR, Britain, the United States, and France or, failing an agreement among those powers, by the United Nations General Assembly. She relinquished all special rights in China and surrendered to the Chinese government the Italian concession at Tientsin and Italian rights in the international settlements of Shanghai and Amoy. Recognizing the sovereignty and independence of Albania and Albanian possession of the island of Saseno (Sazan), she abandoned all special rights in that country and surrendered to the Albanian government all Italian state property there. Similarly recognizing the sovereignty and independence of Ethiopia, she gave up all special claims and rights there and undertook to return all works of art, religious objects, archives, and objects of historical value taken after Oct. 3, 1935. Italy also promised to apprehend and surrender for trial all persons accused of WAR CRIMES . The military clauses required the destruction of fortifications on the Franco-Italian and Yugoslav-Italian frontiers and the demilitarization of zones 20 kilometers deep on the Italian side. Pantelleria, the Pelagie Islands, Pianosa, and northern Sardinia were to be completely demilitarized; southern Sardinia and Sicily, partially so. Italy was not to possess, construct, or even experiment with atomic weapons, self-propelled or guided missiles, long-range guns, noncontact mines and torpedoes, manned torpedoes, aircraft carriers, or submarines, and she was forbidden to acquire or manufacture war material beyond relatively limited amounts specified in an annex to the treaty. The warships that she could retain were similarly specified in an annex. Naval personnel were not to exceed 25,000. The army and carabinieri together were not to exceed 250,000. The air force was not to have more than 25,000 men and 350 planes. Reparations clauses provided that Italy should pay the equivalent of $360,000,000--$125,000,000 to Yugoslavia, $105,000,000 to Greece, $100,000,000 to the USSR, $25,000,000 to Ethiopia, and $5,000,000 to Albania. These payments were not to be in money but in goods; surplus war material, capital goods, or, after a period of grace of two years, goods from current industrial production. Quantities and types were to be determined by bilateral negotiation, but it was stipulated that goods should be selected and deliveries scheduled "in such a way as to avoid interference with the economic reconstruction of Italy and the imposition of additional liabilities on other Allied and Associated Powers. While waiving all claims against these powers, Italy also promised to restore to them at her own expense all property that had been taken from their nationals. In the upshot the Allies were unable to agree on the Italian colonies, and the issue went to the United Nations General Assembly. As a result of votes there, Libya, which had been under British and French administration, became an independent kingdom on Dec. 24, 1951; Eritrea, at first under British administration, federated with Ethiopia on Sept. 15, 1952 (in 1962, Eritrea decided to unite with Ethiopia); and Somaliland, also at first under British administration, became an Italian trusteeship on April 1, 1950, and joined with the Somaliland Protectorate (British Somaliland) to form an independent republic, Somalia, on July 1, 1960. Trieste never became a self-governing territory, for the city and its environs and the Gorizia region to the northwest (Zone A) remained under Anglo-American occupation, while the southern portion (Zone B) continued to be garrisoned by Yugoslav troops, and these arrangements ended only when, on Oct. 5, 1954, Italy and Yugoslavia agreed to a partition. Zone A returned to Italy; Zone B became part of Yugoslavia. Moreover, in December 1951-January 1952, Italy won from 14 of the 21 signers of the treaty consent in principle to a modification of the military clauses, and thereafter the Italian government did not heed them. Bulgarian Peace Treaty The Bulgarian treaty had a preamble similar to that of the Italian treaty. Its territorial clause provided simply that Bulgaria's frontiers should be those of Jan. 1, 1941. This meant that the southern Dobruja, which had been transferred to Bulgaria in 1940, would remain Bulgarian. The political clauses referring to civil liberties, the suppression of fascist activities, and the surrender of war criminals were identical with those in the Italian treaty, as were the military clauses relating to new weapons. The Bulgarian Army was not to consist of more than 55,000 men, the antiaircraft artillery force of more than 1,800, the navy of more than 3,500, or the air force of more than 5,200. The navy was to be limited to 7,250 tons; the air force, to 90 planes. Installations for offensive warfare were not to be maintained along the Greek frontier. As for reparations, the Bulgarians were to turn over manufactures, raw materials, and agricultural products to the value of $70,000,000--$45,000,000 to Greece and $25,000,000 to Yugoslavia. In addition, the Soviet Union was to be accorded title to most German assets in the country. Aside from a special clause providing for free navigation of the Danube River, the rest of the treaty was also similar to the Italian. Romanian Peace Treaty The Romanian treaty was much like the Bulgarian. Romania's frontiers were to be those of Jan. 1, 1941, thus confirming the cession that had been made to the USSR on June 28, 1940, of Bessarabia and northern Bucovina, and to Bulgaria on Sept. 7, 1940, of southern Dobruja. The only exception was the Romanian-Hungarian frontier, which was to be restored to the status of Jan. 1, 1938. Northern Transylvania was thus to be returned to Romania. Among the political clauses was one which had been omitted from the Bulgarian treaty because of that country's relatively good record in regard to racial minorities. This pledged the Romanian government not to enact laws that should "either in their content or in their application, discriminate or entail any discrimination between persons of Romanian nationality on the ground of their race, sex, language or religion. Under the military clauses the army was to be limited to 120,000 men, the antiaircraft artillery force to 5,000, the navy to 5,000, and the air force to 8,000, with 15,000 tons set as the limit on the fleet and 150 planes as the limit on the air force. Reparations consisting of $300,000,000 worth of commodities were to be made over to the USSR within eight years from Sept. 12, 1944, and the Romanian government joined in promising free navigation on the Danube. Like the Italian and Bulgarian treaties, that for Romania pledged the withdrawal of Allied forces within 90 days. It made an exception, however, for the Soviet Union, entitling it to keep on Romanian territory "such armed forces as it may need for the maintenance of the lines of communication of the Soviet Army with the Soviet zone of occupation in Austria. Hungarian Peace Treaty The Hungarian treaty was like the Romanian, including the political clause forbidding discrimination. It restored the frontiers with Czechoslovakia, Austria, Yugoslavia, and Hungary to the status of Jan. 1, 1938, except for the cession to Czechoslovakia of an area across the Danube from Bratislava. It fixed limits of 65,000 men on the Hungarian Army and 5,000 men and 90 aircraft on the Hungarian Air Force. Reparations goods to the value of $200,000,000 were to be paid to the USSR. Another $100,000,000 worth was to be divided by Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia in proportions to be agreed on by those states. In Hungary as in Romania, Soviet troops were to retain lines of communication to Austria. Finnish Peace Treaty Although the United States was not a party to the Finnish treaty, never having declared war on Finland, the document did not differ materially from the others. It included a political clause forbidding discriminatory legislation. Finland's frontiers were to be those of Jan. 1, 1941, thus confirming the accessions of territory made by the Soviet Union as a result of the Winter War of 1939-1940. In addition, Finland was to cede to the USSR the Province of Petsamo (now Pechenga); and, in return for Soviet renunciation of the right to lease the Hango (Hanko) Peninsula, to confirm a 50-year Russian lease on a naval base on the Porkkala Peninsula, with appropriate rights of access. The Finnish Army was to be limited to 34,400 men, the navy to 4,500 men and 10,000 tons, and the air force to 3,000 men and 60 planes. In addition, $300,000,000 worth of commodities were to be transferred to the USSR as reparations. LATER DEVELOPMENTS Although subsequent foreign ministers' conferences devoted much time to discussion of treaties for Austria, Germany, and Japan, little progress resulted. Even at the time of the signing of the satellite treaties, the United States and the USSR had been drawing apart. Clashes between them in 1947 and 1948 created increasing tension, and by the end of the latter year their relationship was accurately characterized as one of cold war. In 1950 came armed conflict in Korea between Soviet-backed Communist forces on one side and United Nations forces led by the United States on the other. Japanese Peace Treaty Meanwhile, the United States government had grown increasingly impatient about maintaining an expensive and, in its judgment, no longer necessary occupation of Japan. Consequently, in 1950 President Harry S. TRUMAN circularized the various governments that had been wartime allies, proposing the drafting of a Japanese Peace Treaty. A special presidential mission then visited many capitals, including Tokyo, and formulated terms that the majority would accept. A conference was called to meet in San Francisco on Sept. 4-8, 1951, and 51 nations, including the USSR, agreed to send representatives. Although the Soviet, Czechoslovak, and Polish delegates refused to sign the treaty, the other 48 delegates did so. An adequate number of governments then ratified the document, and it came into force on April 28, 1952. Making no reference to war guilt, the preamble merely asserted that the Allied powers and Japan were "resolved that henceforth their relations shall be those of nations which, as sovereign equals, cooperate in friendly association to promote their common welfare and to maintain international peace and security. It stated that Japan would apply for membership in the United Nations and conform to the principles of the United Nations Charter. By the territorial clauses of the treaty, Japan recognized the independence of Korea and renounced all claims to Taiwan (Formosa), the Penghu Islands (Pescadores), the Kuril Islands, the southern part of Sakhalin, and the mandates which she had held from the League of Nations. She stated that she would concur in any United States proposal to make the Ryukyu Islands, the Bonin Islands, the Volcano Islands, Parece Vela, and Marcus Island into United Nations trusteeships under the exclusive control of the United States. A special set of clauses labeled "security provided that Japan should "refrain from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State but also recognized that as a sovereign nation she possessed " the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense and might therefore enter into collective security agreements with other governments. There were no clauses limiting the Japanese armed forces. While fixing no sums for reparations payments, the treaty stipulated that any of the former Allies might seize and retain certain assets of Japanese nationals, that similar assets held in neutral countries should be turned over to the International Committee of the Red Cross to be used for former prisoners of war and their families, and that the Japanese government would negotiate with each of her former enemies about making compensation for wartime damage by lending the services of Japanese technicians and workmen. Austrian State Treaty In March-April 1955, the Soviet Union unexpectedly indicated that it was prepared to negotiate a treaty for Austria. A conference promptly convened in Vienna; a treaty was signed on May 15; and it came into force on July 27, 1955. Although its preamble treated Austria as a liberated nation rather than as a former enemy, many of the specific provisions were similar to or identical with those in the satellite treaties of 1947. The Austrian government was obliged to prevent the revival of Nazi or fascist organizations and not to enact any discriminatory legislation. The use of Croat and Slovene in schools and official documents was guaranteed for regions where members of these nationalities formed substantial minorities. Although numbers were not fixed for the Austrian armed forces, atomic weapons, guided missiles, and the like were forbidden, and specified limits were placed on the amounts of war material that Austria could possess. While reparations as such were not to be exacted, the treaty gave the USSR a 30-year concession on approximately 60 percent of the country's oil-bearing land and control over most of its refineries. In return for the surrender of certain former German assets, the Soviet Union was also to receive $150,000,000 in currency. Special clauses forbade any political or economic union of Austria and Germany or even agitation in such a cause; stipulated that the nation should have a democratic government, the secret ballot, and free, equal, and universal suffrage; and directed that a ban be maintained against the return of the house of Habsburg. After the Austrian State Treaty, progress toward a peace settlement halted again. The Soviet Union and the United States disagreed completely about Germany, and the provisional regimes in the eastern and western zones of that country hardened into permanent governments. While World War II appeared to have brought a final end to the conflict that had begun in 1914, the era after it had some of the characteristics of another long armistice--an armed truce between West and East.
Ernest R. May
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